69 - Historical Context of Turkey
2023 No 69
The churches of Asia greet you.
—1 Corinthians 16:19
Introduction: Know your Bible
Turkey is one of those countries that gets little attention in the Christian world. And yet Anatolia figures very prominently in the New Testament. The Apostle Paul was born and raised in Turkey. Much of his work... and all seven churches in Revelation were in Turkey. It was in Turkey where our forefathers were first called Christians. (Acts 11:26) As the early church took hold and grew, all seven early ecumenical church councils were held in Turkey. Everyone wants to make a pilgrimage to Israel, but only a few seem to realize that for our faith to expand from Jerusalem to the uttermost parts of the world, it had to transition through Western Asia.
Long History: Crossroads of the World
Historically, the Anatolian Peninsula (Turkey) has always been a bridge between the East and the West. Any army that wanted to fight a battle or extend their kingdom to both Europe and Asia had to control this territory. In antiquity, the region was held by the Persians, then the Greeks, and by the time of Paul, the Romans. In 330 AD, Emperor Constantine moved the capital of Rome to Byzantium, later to be known as Constantinople (modern Istanbul), on the Bosporus Strait. Why? Because it was a position of control. As Christianity gained favor in the empire, the early church thrived in the Asian context. One could go on, discussing the history of the Catholic church during the Byzantine period… but that would take multiple articles… and we would get off track.
It is crucial, however, to recognize how Islam would also take and hold the region. The incursion of Islam into Anatolia was, initially, not really one of conquest but rather one of migrational influence at the end of the first millennium.3 Islam arrived with nomads from the East, assimilating the population over time to form the Seljuk Empire. This is not to say that there was no opposition from the Christian West, particularly armies traveling as a part of the Crusades. But Islam became established and remained firm as the peninsula became the center of the emerging Ottoman Empire in the 14th century. They controlled the region until their demise after the First World War. It was at that time that the modern Republic of Turkey was founded.
Since the early 20th century, the Republic has sought to build itself as a uniquely Turkish autonomous nation. That is to say, her identity was to be found in being both Muslim and genetically Turkic. It is essential to understand that "Turkic People" is an ethnic group that can be found far beyond Turkey's borders. Over 200 million such "Turks" live in 43 different countries.4 To build that nation, it was necessary to develop state policies that controlled both the going out (emigration) and the coming in (immigration) of her citizens.5
A Century of Migration
In the early days of building the Turkish Republic, there was an intentional effort towards both the "Turkification" and the "Islamization" of the country. That meant they sought to expel all non-Muslims (mostly Armenians and Greeks) and invite Turkish Muslim populations (primarily from the Balkans). Several treaties and conventions were forged with other countries to allow for these movements. One must remember that in the days before WWII, most countries were very nationalistic, focusing on their own "ethnic" populations. Looking back, we can now understand how this created some seriously flawed political and national policies. These policies often led to forced displacements, such as the population exchange of nearly 1.5 million Greeks and Muslims back in 1923.6
The 1934 Law on Settlement became the defining cornerstone of Turkey's nation-building process.7 For the next fifty years, this standard would grant preferred status to immigrants of Turkic origin or culture while impeding the movements of those who didn't qualify, whether migrants or refugees. These policies would allow over a million Muslims to immigrate from the Balkans alone. Tens of thousands of others would come from places like Romania, Yugoslavia, Russia, Cyprus, and Greece. All were granted full citizenship upon arrival.
But the Republic’s policies were not just about immigration. Between 1961 and 1974, Turkey also sent 800,000 workers to Europe. Their remittances were considered vital to foreign trade and brought nearly $2 billion to the economy.8 After the oil crisis of 1974, emigrants were sent to much more distant locations such as the United States, Australia, the Middle East, and particularly North Africa. This global expansion became very popular, bringing new-found wealth to a growing middle class… and their remittances, which would benefit all. It also created a national attitude towards migration that was very popular… at least for her own people.
In the late 20th century, however, the policies on migration began to change. The coup d'état of 1980 brought a renewed interest in becoming an even more prominent part of the global economy. The idea was to develop Turkey, as a nation, into an economic player. This mandated a relaxed position on foreigners in the country. But that shift did not come without its challenges. If you remember from our previous post, the Iranian revolution of 1979 brought as many as a million refugees to the country.9 Additionally, the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 allowed thousands from the Balkan states to enter for economic opportunities.
Since 2010, in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, Turkey has had its own "migrant crisis." Turkey has held the world’s largest refugee population for nine consecutive years, hosting nearly four million refugees and asylum-seekers under international protection.10 The vast majority of these refugees are Syrian. It is challenging to know how many illegal immigrants are present in Turkey. The General Directorate of Immigration stated that they deported 125,000 illegal immigrants in 2023.11 Greece claims that it prevented some 260,000 from crossing its borders. How many Africans are in that mix is unknown. Some estimates place the number in Istanbul alone as high as 200,000.12 Many are legal. Many more have overstayed their visas and are now illegal.
The Contemporary Setting
From an African view, the Eastern Mediterranean Route describes those sub-Saharans who travel to and through Turkey in their quest to arrive in Europe. Understanding the context of Turkey helps to know how and why people might choose this pathway. I recently spoke at a conference where I described the push-pull factors of this route. On the one hand, Africans are highly motivated to migrate towards Europe. On the other hand, Turkey has reason to offer incentives to Africans to head in their direction.13 For those who migrate legally to Turkey, it can be very good. And to be clear, perhaps 98% of all Africans who go to Turkey are legal. But more about that in a bit.
Turkey sees itself as an “Afro-Eurasian State” and desires to play a strategic role in the region.14 Why? Because there is a potential jackpot of economic and political benefit for those closely linked to the African Continent. Thinking back to the early 1990s, all but three African countries had gained independence and were quickly separating from their colonial dependencies in the West. This created an opportunity for Turkey, as she herself was entering the global marketplace.15 Turkish leaders knew that Africa's European history meant that any geopolitical relationships must be handled carefully. They also knew Turkish kinship with fellow Muslims would give them an advantage.16
Consequently, Turkey developed a two-tiered approach to Africa: economics and education. On the economic side, they sought to create commercial connections. After becoming a strategic partner with the African Union in 2008, they began hosting trade forums to draw representatives from 42 African nations and thousands of businessmen.17 These delegates carried economic incentives back home, establishing some 45 business councils.18 By 2021, Turkey’s trade volume with Africa was $34.5 billion, with a stated goal of $50 billion.19 Currently, 38 African states have placed their embassies in Ankara, and Turkey has 44 in Africa.20 To make access easier, Turkey's national airlines fly directly to 61 cities in 40 African countries.21
On the education side, Turkish leaders understood from the beginning that the way to access the continent was through her youth. The “Great Student Project” was initiated in 1992, funding nearly 100 schools through the Islamic Gülen movement.22 This program evolved into the “Türkiye Scholarships" in 2012. The apparent goal was to create a feeder system whereby graduates could go to Turkey for university and graduate-level studies. Almost every university in Turkey has created space for African students and offers entire degree programs in English. The government has granted over 15,000 scholarships since 1992, with nearly 1,150 in 2019 alone.23 Within a decade, between 2010 and 2020, 5,259 students attended university in Turkey, with nearly 2,850 graduates.24 The goal is obvious... a student with a Turkish degree, Turkish culture, and Turkish language will be much more favorable to Turkish investments once they return home.
The key to remember in all of this is that Turkey has been good for Africa, and Africa has been good for Turkey. Turkey understands migration and has turned that to their advantage. There are strong incentives to go to Turkey. Many will go, find a good education, develop a strong business contact, and return to Africa in much better shape than they left. Even more importantly, Turkey serves as a third party in the African-Western relationship. In an African context, whenever a relationship begins to sour, an intermediary is always used to bring restoration. In a post-colonial world, Turkey connects Africa with Europe in a way that becomes profitable for all three. In so many respects, it is a win-win situation.
So Where is the Dark Side of African Migration to Turkey
Try to imagine a place where rich people get their education, go on vacation, and find more wealth. It is a land of good people, decent morals, and a stable government. It is a country situated at the historical crossroads of the world, where people who desire to go from "here" to "there" must pass. It is a place where business relationships are built, and new contacts from around the world can be made. And, as each year goes by, getting "there" becomes easier, and the rewards seem only to get better. It sounds like a great place, doesn't it?
But we also know that even if such a place were real, it would have its dark corners. Such is also true in Turkey. There are those who make their wealth from war, trafficking, and human suffering. It is a place where transnational criminal networks can hide, do business, and thrive.25 These mafias are in a strong position to capitalize on those who are weak and to profit from their search for life. What that looks like will take a number of future posts to explain, but allow me to offer a few examples.
Smuggling Networks: As we have often said, smuggling networks serve as travel agents for migrants. They help to arrange passage through places and in ways that would be very difficult for the migrants to do themselves. These networks have connections within the government and community to bypass border restrictions. They are undoubtedly criminals and often employ locals to achieve their goals.
Trafficking Networks: These networks work within and draw from the smuggling networks... but are distinctly different. Traffickers ensnare people, forcing them to go places and do things that they would never do otherwise. They victimize people to carry drugs, work on farms, or fill roles in the sex industry. For example, they may promise a university scholarship and then press the students into the sex trade.
Commercial Networks: These networks are somewhat of a combination of the above. They promise work in Istanbul or the hotel industry. Those jobs, however, are rare. Most are then left with nothing else than to work in textile sweatshops or as domestic laborers for little or no pay. This has become a common practice among Asian immigrants.
Conclusion
One would think that the Turkish government would work hard to crack down on the above networks. It would appear, however, that there is little incentive to do so. Why? Three reasons. The first is that a lot of money is generated by smuggling and trafficking. Such adds to the Turkish economy and the pockets of unscrupulous officials. Second, these networks help to contain and control illegal movements. Remember that Turkey does not want to host all of these refugees. They would prefer that they keep moving and exit the country as quickly as possible. Smugglers make that possible. Third, the pressure of migrants passing through Turkey on EU borders has created some unique political and economic advantages for Turkey. In an effort to control European migration, the EU-Turkey Agreement was signed in 2016. For their part, Turkey would receive over six billion euros in compensation.26 When that deal expired, Turkey continued to use migrants as a bargaining chip.27 That set the stage for a renegotiation of the deal in 2021.28
Once again, controlling the crossing of the Bosphorus Strait at Istanbul has always been a position of power. Turkey holds that today and serves as the transition point for Middle-Eastern refugees and Africans who desire to migrate to Europe. It is part of what makes the Eastern Mediterranean Route so complicated. Despite such complexities, we must remember that God also has a history in the region. In the first few centuries, churches were scattered across Anatolia. They were the seedbed for the expansion of Christianity into Europe… beginning with Greece.
The number of Christians on the refugee highways is not insignificant, and perhaps half of all Africans making the journey are also believers. They leave their mark as they go and are being used greatly by our Lord to testify to His grace and gospel wherever they land. Turkey may desire to remain "Turkish" and "Muslim," but these migrants are making that increasingly difficult. We have been in churches across the region, and one does not get the impression that they are hindered in any way. In fact, they send you their greetings.
1 Image courtesy of Mark Fairchild, "Greece & Turkey: The Cradle of Christianity 2022", Biblical Archaeology Society https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/travel-study/greece-turkey-the-cradle-of-christianity-2022/ (accessed July 9, 2023).
2 Image courtesy of "Empire", Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire (accessed July 9, 2023).
3 Alexander Beihammer, "Patterns of Turkish Migration and Expansion in Byzantine Asia Minor in the 11th and 12th Centuries," in Migration Histories of the Medieval Afroeurasian Transition Zone, ed. Dirk Hoerder (2020), 166.
4 "People Groups: Turkic Peoples", International Mission Board https://www.peoplegroups.org/explore/AffinityBlocDetails.aspx?rop1=A015 (accessed May 4, 2023).
5 Ahmet Icduygu and Damla Askel, "Turkish Migration Policies: A Critical Historical Retrospective," Perceptions XVIII, no. 3 (2013): 167.
6 Asli Igsiz, Humanism in Ruins: Entangled Legacies of the Greek-Turkish Population Exchange (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2018), 4-5.
7 Icduygu and Askel, "Turkish Migration Policies: A Critical Historical Retrospective," 171.
8 Ibid., 174.
9 Republic of Turkiye, "Mass Influxes", Presidency of Migration Management https://en.goc.gov.tr/mass-influxes (accessed May 4, 2023).
10 UNHCR, "UNHCR Turkiye - Bi-Annual Fact Sheet February 2023", United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/99343 (accessed May 4, 2023).
11 "Türkiye Deports 124,000 Irregular Migrants in 2022", Daily Sabah https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/turkiye-deports-124000-irregular-migrants-in-2022/news (accessed May 4, 2023).
12 Ahmet Kulsoy, "Stuck in Istanbul, African Migrants Suffer Mistreatment", Ahval https://ahvalnews.com/refugee-crisis/stuck-istanbul-african-migrants-suffer-mistreatment (accessed May 4, 2023). See also Zeynep Bilgehan, "African Business People Earn Success in Istanbul", Daily News https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/african-businesspeople-earn-success-in-istanbul-132076 (accessed May 4, 2023).
13 Emel Parlar Dal and Samiratou Dipama, "Assessing Turkey-Africa Engagements", Africa Policy Research Institute https://afripoli.org/assessing-turkey-africa-engagements (accessed July 9, 2023).
14 Mahmoud A Ibrahim, "Turkey Is an Afro-Eurasian State", Politics Today https://politicstoday.org/turkey-erdogan-in-africa/ (accessed April 21, 2023).
15 Bülent Gökay, Turkey in the Global Economy: Neoliberalism, Global Shift, and the Making of a Rising Power (McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2021), 1.
16 Tom Wheeler, "Ankara to Africa: Turkey’s Outreach Since 2005," South African Journal of International Affairs 18, no. 1 (2011): 43.
17 Serhat Oraçi, "The Rise of Turkey in Africa", Aljazeeera Center for Studies https://studies.aljazeera.net/en/analyses/rise-turkey-africa (accessed April 20, 2023).
18 Ibid.
19 Republic of Turkiye, "Türkiye-Africa Relations", Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs https://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkiye-africa-relations.en.mfa (accessed April 20, 2023).
20 Ibid.
21 Oraçi.
22 Teresa Nogueira Pinto, "Turkey’s Strategy for Africa", Geopolitical Intelligence Services https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/turkeys-influence-in-africa/ (accessed April 20, 2021).
23 Oraçi.
24 Nazli Yuzbasioglu, "YTB’s Türkiye Scholarships Left Their Mark on Turkey-Africa Cooperation", Anadolu Ajansi https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/turkiye-afrika-is-birligine-ytbnin-turkiye-burslari-damgasini-vurdu/1713680 (accessed April 21, 2023).
25 Turkey ranks 12th in the world for countries that tolerate organized criminal networks operating within their borders. See GI-TOC, Global Organized Crime Index 2021 (Geneva: Director, Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, 2021).
26 European Council, "EU-Turkey Statement, 18 March 2016", Council of the European Union https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2016/03/18/eu-turkey-statement/ (accessed July 9, 2023).
27 John Psaropoulos, "Greece on the Defensive as Turkey Opens Border to Refugees", AlJazeera https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/3/1/greece-on-the-defensive-as-turkey-opens-border-to-refugees (accessed July 8, 2023).
28 Daniele Albanese, "The Renewal of the EU-Turkey Migration Deal", Italian Institute for International Political Studies https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/renewal-eu-turkey-migration-deal-30509 (accessed July 9, 2023).