71 – Route of Resource
2023 No 71
“You shall go to the priest who is in office at that time and say to him, ‘I declare this day to the LORD my God that I have entered the land which the LORD swore to our fathers to give us.’ Then the priest shall take the basket from your hand and set it down before the altar of the LORD your God. You shall answer and say before the LORD your God, ‘My father was a wandering Aramean, and he went down to Egypt and sojourned there, few in number; but there he became a great, mighty and populous nation… and you and the Levite and the alien who is among you shall rejoice in all the good which the Lord your God has given you and your household.
—Deuteronomy 26:3-5, 11
Introduction
Whew! By reading the volume of past posts, you have survived a mini-course on Middle Eastern history. Well done! If you are not a history buff, my apologies. But as we often say in Biblical studies… context is everything. We have given time to explain the EMR as a migration route for those coming from the Middle East. These genuine refugees are predominantly Arab and Persian. They are the real story. Almost everyone else simply takes advantage of the established smuggling networks and fills empty bus and boat seats. This point becomes critical if you aim to understand the Eastern Mediterranean Migration Route.
We will now turn our attention to the Africans… those sub-Saharan peoples who choose to come this way.
If you speak to anyone on the Eastern Mediterranean Route (EMR) who has made it to Greece, they will tell you that they are refugees. Why? Because the only story that will pass an asylum application is one of forced displacement. And yet, in all our interactions with African migrants, we rarely encounter those who were actual refugees… at least not on the EMR. This is not to say that they do not have a story of displacement. It may be a story of war, a story of persecution, or a story of famine. And… their stories "might" be true… but that is not why they are in Turkey. Those Africans who were indeed displaced involuntarily were first pushed into another location much closer to home for refuge. They then made a secondary decision to journey to Turkey and beyond, typically for economic reasons.
Thus, for Africans, the EMR is a route of resource. Again, why do we say this? Because most Africans enter Turkey legally. That means they had to comply with entry requirements, purchase a plane ticket, secure a visa, and have a legitimate reason to be there. In the process, they can spend tens of thousands of US dollars. Some can do this on their own, others pay someone to handle all the details for them. Either way, they are spending money. Not surprisingly, wherever money is spent, there will always be takers on the receiving end.1 Even those who cannot enter by regular/legal means can easily find “passeurs” or “travel agents” who have the connections to get them into the country along more clandestine pathways.
It may be helpful to process a phrase I have used often to describe SSA migrants. Those who travel towards Europe are often motivated by a “perception of a better life.” What I mean by this is that the image people are given is usually very different from the reality of the EMR. The story back in Africa is that the Eastern Mediterranean Route is a quick and straightforward way to get to Europe. Once there, one can easily find a job and pay back whatever was spent to get there. Even though the journey will be expensive, the benefits outweigh the costs. This perception of hope and future can be irresistible to young adults and university graduates struggling to find work. It can be attractive to anyone!
As we have discovered on the other migration routes, this “bright future” is seldom possible. And yet, this “sales pitch” convinces thousands of young Africans with enough money to avoid the other migration routes. Most would never knowingly risk the Central or Western routes. But they are convinced that they can go easily to Turkey. It is not until arrival that the illusion fades into reality. Istanbul slums are notoriously dangerous, the weather is uncomfortable, and decent jobs are hard to find.2 One's cash reserves can dissipate quickly, meaning Istanbul can become a trap. There are tens of thousands of African migrants who have found their way to Turkey, only to become stranded, and now have little to no hope of any forward progress.
And yet, for a price, one can indeed move forward. How they do that is the subject of the following few paragraphs.
Education
The easiest way for a young sub-Saharan to enter Turkey is as a student. Nearly every university is recruiting students from the African continent. Most are legitimate, offering solid degree programs for those who qualify. With these scholarships, students pay significantly reduced, if not free, tuition. Many will receive housing, and a few will even receive money for living expenses. Most importantly, they receive a student visa… allowing them to be in the country… and to work. We have met those who are extending their education as long as possible simply so they can continue profiting from their visa status. When it eventually expires, they either return home or seek passage into Europe.4
It is essential to distinguish between those Africans who are educational migrants in Turkey and those who are on the Eastern Mediterranean Route to Europe. While legitimate students may be offered European jobs, most never intend to get in a boat. If they were to relocate to the EU, they would do so legally, with a visa in hand. We have met some incredible students during our time in Turkey, most being some of the brightest minds their countries have to offer. They are precisely what the Turkish government is hoping for. When they return home, they will serve as ambassadors and networkers… connecting Turkey with the African continent.
Not all educational invitations, however, are legitimate. Turkish universities can suffer from the same level of corruption as in other countries, and some will offer a valid student visa for a price. In certain places, like Northern Cyprus, there are universities in name only. Working with smuggling networks, these unscrupulous officials can offer student visas without ever requiring attendance at the university. Thus, migrants from around the world can obtain the legal status to enter the country, to be then smuggled into Europe. Needless to say, this pathway is expensive, but it has become a primary initial step on the EMR.
One of the things that will become evident in the stories to follow is the vicious nature of human smuggling/trafficking.5 The goal of many of these "agents" is simply to extract as much money as possible from an individual, even if it means that they cannot deliver them all the way to Europe. Former students are often employed to recruit new students… earning as much as $800 USD for every new admission.6 Stories abound of students who paid their money upfront, only to be abandoned once they arrived in the region. They are then left on their own to secure further resources and to engage with a subsequent smuggler to help them move forward. In Cyprus, many of the female students are pressed into the sex trade to survive financially.7
Commerce
Yet another point of origin for Africans in Turkey is through commerce. Turkey is a vast producer of goods, many of which are destined for Africa.8 Their export goals are highly opportunistic. In 2021, Turkey's trade volume with Africa was $34.5 billion, with a goal of $50 billion. (2023) They are heavily invested in African development, with foreign direct investment exceeding $6 billion and more than 1,100 ongoing projects across the continent.9 As such, Turkey has an open door for those Africans who wish to engage in trade.
In one neighborhood in Istanbul, nearly every storefront is either a wholesaler of textiles or a transport company bound for Africa. Hundreds of sub-Saharan vendors arrive weekly to purchase clothing for resale back home. Often, the garments are fabricated in factories located above the boutiques. Laborers are those migrants who came for jobs, have overstayed their visas, and now work for survival. Such sweatshops can be found across Turkey, often pressing women and children of various ethnicities into service.10 There are indeed legal shops, that comply with local laws and function in an ethical manner. These kinds of industries, the legal ones, create the real possibility of wealth back in their African country of origin. That is a good thing. Unfortunately, they are the minority.
In parts of the city, one can find immigrant communities that have been present for several generations. Many Africans arrived in the early 1970s as Turkey began to engage Africa. One can find vast communities from across the continent. It was amazing how many Senegalese Mourids one could discover in Istanbul and Izmir… selling everything from belts to cell phones on the streets.11 Most of these "diasporic" Africans are engaged in commerce and draw from their families back on the continent to fill any job openings or to start new ventures.
As one might imagine, a job offer in Istanbul in manufacturing can be very appealing to an unemployed university graduate in Nigeria or Cameroon. The challenge is that the reality of the job, or living conditions, seldom matches what they are told upfront. Being a worker is vastly different from being in the family business. They arrive only to discover that jobs pay much less than the minimum wage, the cost of living is high, and the opportunities for advancement are scarce. They came using family resources and are expected to succeed and begin sending their remittances back home. Most find themselves living at a poverty level and are too ashamed to reveal their actual situation to their family. In the end, it becomes a trap.
Tourism
One might think Turkey could simply slow down African migration by restricting access through its airports. In so many respects, they could. But as we have seen in our previous posts, the migration crisis for Turkey is not from individuals coming from Africa but rather from the war-torn countries to the South and East. It is there that her attention is acutely focused. Africans are such a small percentage of the total that they get lost in the numbers. When Turkey does focus on Africa, one must remember that they are investing in the continent and are inviting its citizens to come. They represent a financial boom for a struggling Turkish economy. Consequently, restricting students or tourism is not profitable. Even if the Africans do come and then pay smugglers for passage to Greece, it becomes just another income stream for corrupt officials.
Most Africans who traverse Turkey on the EMR arrive as tourists. It is indeed an easy way to enter the country. Tourist visas are readily accessible to individuals without the help of a smuggler. However, those with adequate resources may use the services of a “travel agent,” purchase a round-trip ticket, secure a tourist visa, and rent a room in Istanbul. They then have plenty of time before their visa expires to make arrangements to cross over into Greece. Although this pathway may cost thousands of dollars, these migrants typically have access to such funds. Remember, this is the route of resource.
Wealth in Africa is a sliding scale. The rich and well-informed can manage on their own. Those with more limited resources may not have a specific plan. It is here where they turn, once again, to social media. There, they find guidance. They learn that upon arrival, they need to find their way to the African community in Istanbul, Taksim Square.13 From there, they can find a place to stay and begin to look for work. Most know that they will overstay their tourist visas, but this is not generally a problem. Istanbul is a city of nearly 16 million people. It is easy to blend into the background and avoid the authorities. There is a high demand in the local textile industries, and hiring undocumented workers results in higher profits and helps to maintain stronger relations with African communities. Generally speaking, the Turkish government looks the other way.
Human Trafficking
However, not everyone can get into Turkey legally. The borders between Turkey and Syria, Iraq, Iran, and even Cyprus are somewhat porous… meaning that smuggling routes exist to move people without government detection. As noted in a previous post, Turkey is being highly compensated by the European Union to restrict migration.12 To fulfill those obligations, Turkey has put a number of security measures in place and often makes them visible to the world.15 Since irregular migration from Africa is relatively minor compared to those from Syria and Afghanistan, Turkey does not give them much attention.
That does not always mean that gaining a visa is simple for Africans. Two countries on the continent have visa-free access, five countries have e-visa provisions, and the rest require a visa in advance. Those visas are subject to a number of limitations. Consequently, one can find those who have the money to fly to Turkey but do not have access to a visa.16 Additionally, if someone has ever been to Turkey and then returned after having overstayed their legal visa, even by a few days, they will be barred from a new visa for up to five years.17 In each of these cases, there are always smugglers available to move Africans into Turkey across any of her borders or with forged documents. But in those shadows, there are places where the world of smugglers and the world of traffickers intersect.
On that darker side, Turkey is a breeding ground for Russian, Balkan, and Middle Eastern criminal syndicates. Drug trafficking is prevalent and has become a multi-billion dollar industry.18 With the growth of organized crime in the country, human trafficking has also increased.19 The predominant population targeted are illegal migrants and refugees. Some borrow the money from these "agents" to migrate and then cannot repay. Others are recruited with false offers of jobs or university scholarships and are then pressed into labor markets. As noted above, women are recruited from sub-Saharan Africa, only to discover that they have been sold to service the casinos in Cyprus. Turkey is considered a Tier-2 country on the US State Department Trafficking scale… meaning that efforts to control trafficking are present… but that one should not hold out much hope for justice.20
Conclusion
If you walk the streets of Istanbul, or any Turkish city for that matter, you will see many people who hail from Africa. Most are legally in the country and attend school or hold stable jobs. They are good for Turkey, and Turkey has undoubtedly been good for them. For many, life is indeed better than in Africa. Like the Levites and aliens in Deuteronomy 26, they can say that the Lord has been exceptionally gracious to them.
And yet, for every one of these visible sub-Saharans who walk freely in the community, there are an equal number… if not significantly more... who are living in the shadows. They arrived with a visa in hand, but that expired long ago. Today, they work the streets, the casinos, or in the sweatshops, seeking a way to get enough money to cross the Aegean Sea to Greece. They started well, but things have not gone as they expected. They are still on the road, still wandering in search of that land of milk and honey.
And yet hope abounds. In almost every context, they are walking the road with another migrant who is also a Christian. Often, they live in a neighborhood where an immigrant church can be found. And while the gospel may not change their immigration status, it will most certainly change the decisions that will be made. It will also give them the strength of the Lord to endure the road and to find a better life. Sub-Saharan migrants are coming to faith every day along the EMR. In their case, God is using the pathway of resource to help them find that which is most precious... a life in Christ.
1 Mitch Hamilton, "Principle Four: Money Directs the Way", M2M3 https://m2m3.org/21-principle-four-money-directs-the-way/ (accessed January 24, 2023).
2 Michael Kaplin, "Going Cold Turkey: African Migrants in Istanbul See Hopes Turn Sour", Reliefweb https://reliefweb.int/report/turkey/going-cold-turkey-african-migrants-istanbul-see-hopes-turn-sour (accessed October 30, 2023). See also, Abdirashid Kalmoy, “Hopes in Transition: An Ethnograpy of Sub-Saharan African Migrants in Istanbul” (Master, IBN Haldun University, 2021).
3 AS Photo Family, "Poster: Study in Turkey. Group of Five African College Students on Campus", myloview https://myloview.com/poster-study-in-turkey-group-of-five-african-college-students-on-campus-no-E2DF173 (accessed November 5, 2023).
4 Issouf Binaté, "Les Étudiants Ouest-Africains En Turquie," Diasporas 37 (2021).
5 It is essential to retain the difference between human smuggling and human trafficking. Smugglers are like travel agents; they serve to provide a service that is both desired and entered into voluntarily by migrants. Traffickers are those who deceive and involuntarily move migrants into slave-like conditions.
6 Derek Thomson, Corentin Bainier, and Erika Olavarria, "Foreign Students in Northern Cyprus: False Promises and Disillusion", France 24 https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/reporters/20230519-foreign-students-in-northern-cyprus-false-promises-and-disillusion (accessed October 30, 2023).
7 Jarrod Sadulski, "Human Trafficking in Northern Cyprus: A Growing Problem", American Military University https://amuedge.com/human-trafficking-in-northern-cyprus-a-growing-problem/#:~:text=Sex trafficking is a major,voluntary basis%3B others are not. (accessed October 30, 2023).
8 World Bank, "Country Profile: Turkey", World Bank https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/TUR/Year/2019/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/SSF/Product/All-Groups (accessed October 30, 2023).
9 Teresa Nogueira Pinto, "Turkey’s Strategy for Africa", Geopolitical Intelligence Services https://www.gisreportsonline.com/r/turkeys-influence-in-africa/ (accessed April 20, 2021).
10 Dasha Afanasieva, "In Turkish Sweatshops, Syrian Children Sew to Survive", Reuters https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/europe-migrants-turkey-children/ (accessed October 30, 2023).
11 Mitch Hamilton, "Principle Three: No One Moves Alone – Local Networks", M2M3 https://m2m3.org/18-principle-three-no-one-moves-alone-local-networks/ (accessed December 7, 2022).
12 "Investing in the Future of Aviation at Istanbul Airport", International Airport Review https://www.internationalairportreview.com/article/109154/investing-future-aviation-istanbul-airport/ (accessed November 5, 2023).
13 Kalmoy, 94-100.
14 "Dozens Trafficked Zimbos Stuck in Turkey", The News Day https://www.newsday.co.zw/slider/article/607/dozens-trafficked-zimbos-stuck-in-turkey (accessed November 5, 2023).
15 "What Is the EU-Turkey Deal?", International Rescue Committee https://www.rescue.org/eu/article/what-eu-turkey-deal (accessed October 30, 2023).
16 Nektaria Stamouli, "Turkey Puts Its Migrant Security System on Display for Europe", Politico https://www.politico.eu/article/turkey-migrant-security-system-iran-border-europe-afghanistan/ (accessed October 30, 2023).
17 Wikipedia, "Visa Policy of Turkey", Wikimedia Foundation (accessed October 30, 2023).
18 Atilla Oros, Statement Regarding the Prohibition of Entry That Shall Be Applied to the Foreigners Who Violate the Right to Legal Stay (Ankara, Turkey: Ministry of Interior of Turkey, 2020).
19 Abdullah Bozkurt, "United Nations Says Turkey Has Become a Cocaine Hub Under Erdogan’s Rule", Nordic Monitor https://nordicmonitor.com/2023/05/united-nations-says-turkey-has-become-a-cocaine-hub-under-erdogans-rule/ (accessed October 30, 2023).
20 2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Türkiye, (Washington DC: US Department of State, 2023).